Wells of Goa
I travelled and photographed the numerous wells within homes across numerous villages in Goa. Through this story, i got to meet and engage with the community that traditionally digs and maintains these wells. It also covers the joyous festival of São João which is centred around wells. ‘Wells of Goa’ highlights the concerns and issues of depleting groundwater resources and the impact of development, pollution, and climate change on potable water.
This is a long-read and I hope you grant me your patience and attention about a story reported about one of the cornerstones of Goan life.
A quarter of a century ago, wells were a common sight near every home in Goa. Every dwelling, by default, had its well. Wells hold significant importance in Goa, serving as vital sources of water and contributing to the state’s cultural and historical heritage. Historically, wells have been essential to Goa’s agrarian communities, particularly under the ‘comunidades’ system, where they were used to support agricultural activities and meet the water needs of the local population. Recollections of stories around wells are a core memory for several generations of Goans, forming their bond to their homeland’s idyllic, unhurried life.
The sound of well water being drawn was music to my ears, writes Clarice Vaz reminiscing her nostalgic memories of wood-smoked bathwater as a young Goan girl in her book – Romalina [1].
The sound of a kouso (round copper pot) being thrown into the well, followed by a low gurgling sound as water filled inside it. Then, squeak and pause, squeak and pause, as it was pulled up to the top of the pulley. She (the house-help) would then pull it towards her and rest it on the embankment in a spot that had a slight dip, undo the noose around the kouso’s neck and pour water into a bucket. Carrying this bucket to the nahni (bathroom), she would mix the hot modki (copper vessel) water with the cold well water to make warm bathing water for me. And then disappear to tend to her other work.
GROUNDWATER AND WELLS
Today, there are still 6,000 wells in Goa, with nearly 80% being open wells used primarily for domestic and agricultural purposes[2]. According to Goa's State Water Policy 2021, the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) estimated Goa's annual extractable groundwater resources at 160.33 million cubic metres (MCuM) as of March 2017, with the extraction of groundwater for all uses at 53.71 MCuM.
The ratio of annual groundwater draft to net annual groundwater availability in percentage stands at 34% for the entire state of Goa. Consequently, all talukas in Goa are classified as ‘safe’ in terms of groundwater levels [3]. However, the policy highlights a significant gap in recent and reliable estimates of water requirements for specific sectors. This lack of comprehensive data on both the resource and utilisation sides makes it difficult to fully understand how much water is being used and where. To address this, the water resources department has initiated a massive drive to geotag wells across the state [4]. These renewed efforts in water conservation follow an intensive mapping of all water bodies in Goa. To understand wells, we have to know about the geography of Goa and the emerging land use patterns.
However, human activities, particularly in coastal, mining, and industrial areas like Calangute, Quepem and Verna, have taken a toll on groundwater. Mining operations involve cutting the top layer of laterite on the plateaus, reducing the rainwater recharge area and causing springs, wells, and streams to dry up. Laterite quarrying has a similar impact. The rapid increase in construction demands more blocks of laterite, leading to further concreting of land, and the loss of trees and farmlands, the effects of which is beginning to show in the groundwater levels across Goa.
Decadal records6 from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) for the decades between 1970 and 2000 show that the South-West monsoon (June to September) brings an average rainfall of 2,500 mm along the Goan coast and 4,100 mm towards the Western Ghats, resulting in an average seasonal rainfall of 3,045 mm. This heavy rainfall causes water levels in wells to rise close to the ground surface by July.
Decadal records6 from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) for the decades between 1970 and 2000 show that the South-West monsoon (June to September) brings an average rainfall of 2,500 mm along the Goan coast and 4,100 mm towards the Western Ghats, resulting in an average seasonal rainfall of 3,045 mm. This heavy rainfall causes water levels in wells to rise close to the ground surface by July.
The region’s orography (i.e. the elevations of mountains, hills and plateaus) plays an important role in the distribution of rainfall over Goa 7. Along with Coastal Karnataka and Kerala, the Konkan regions receive the maximum precipitation over the west coast of India. According to the Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Goa – 20228 report by the Government of Goa, all 12 taluks are currently classified as ‘safe’ in terms of groundwater extraction. However, taluks with higher populations, construction, and industries—such as Ponda, Pernem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Salcette and Marmugao – are extracting close to or more than 30% of the available groundwater, which is above the state average of 23%.
The region’s orography (i.e. the elevations of mountains, hills and plateaus) plays an important role in the distribution of rainfall over Goa 7. Along with Coastal Karnataka and Kerala, the Konkan regions receive the maximum precipitation over the west coast of India. According to the Dynamic Groundwater Resources of Goa – 20228 report by the Government of Goa, all 12 taluks are currently classified as ‘safe’ in terms of groundwater extraction. However, taluks with higher populations, construction, and industries—such as Ponda, Pernem, Bardez, Tiswadi, Salcette and Marmugao – are extracting close to or more than 30% of the available groundwater, which is above the state average of 23%.
RAPID URBANISATION
Since the late 90s, the coastal belt of Goa has seen its groundwater over-exploited, causing the water table in those vaddos (wards) to plummet. Despite the passing of the Groundwater Regulation Act in 2002, this issue persists. With 60% of Goa's population9 living along the urban coastal belt and the majority of tourists flocking to the shoreline, the water demand has skyrocketed. Tourism, being highly water-intensive, exacerbates the deficit, necessitating the use of water tankers to bring supplies from inland villages. This has given rise to a new group of players—water peddlers.
The modus operandi of these water peddlers is noted in the book Fish, Curry and Rice by Claude Alvarez10. Enterprising locals apply for a loan to dig a well for agricultural purposes. A well is dug; water flows. It doesn’t irrigate, it doesn’t cultivate, it is meant for satiating the needs of a different strata. Now commodified, it is sold for money, to fill the swimming pools of gated communities and luxury hotels, to service the needs of tourists who are here for a getaway.
This footage (aside/on the right) captures the free-flowing days of Saligao’s Salmona Spring, underlining how much the village of Saligao has borne the brunt of industrial needs, construction demands, and the tourism economy leeching its water resources. The sudden and ongoing influx of well-off migrants during the pandemic and a boom in real estate activities in Assagao are also leading to something very similar – the market forces turbocharging a quiet village into a quasi-westernised suburbia. Increasingly, villages are seeing the water in their wells becoming unfit to drink as they are becoming contaminated due to seepage of industrial waste and septic tanks or just drying out.
‘This is a manufactured shortage and crisis’
The demand for water keeps rising, causing wells to dry up faster than before. Borewells are then drilled to replace them to counter the deficit, thereby further depleting the underground water reserves and leading to a manufactured shortage and crisis. According to a Mongabay news report 11Goa faces a shortfall of 85 million litres of water per day. The Groundwater Year Book of Goa 2022-23 attributes the fall in water levels to localized over-extraction of groundwater12. The Goa Ground Water Policy (2015) also highlights stressed areas in the industrial, coastal, urban and mining regions13.
Underground streams swiftly flowing beneath plateaus are vital ecological mechanisms, crucial for natural drainage, groundwater recharge, and maintaining water levels and quality. The loss of these recharge areas has immediate consequences for the future. When plateaus are flattened for construction projects and SEZs (Special Economic Zones), several millions of litres of water can be lost. This trend is clearly reflected in the declining water levels of Goan wells, particularly in areas near unchecked urbanisation and extensive concreting.
CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS
Urbanisation over the last 20 to 30 years has changed water consumption patterns in Goa. Surface water from lakes and rivers now contributes significantly to the piped water supply, reducing the importance of wells. The Government of India claims 14 that Goa became the first state to provide piped water to every household. However, reports by Mongabay (ibid) suggest otherwise. While most Goans receive piped water through one of the nine government water supply schemes, the supply is often erratic and unreliable. In 2024, both urban areas in Panjim and rural areas in Sanguem have faced water shortages.
The wells are however, still a valuable resource to many households as was the case in the times gone by. If you thought wells are circular, you’re far from it. In Goa, there is plenty of variation and versatility in their shape and looks, which adds to their novelty and charm.
There are hundreds of wells which lay in various states of disrepair and different stages of abandonment.
THE MAKING OF A WELL
Wells form a lively ecosystem, drawing from the water table to sustain the surrounding flora and fauna. Regular upkeep is essential to remove accumulated silt, debris, and organic matter. Traditionally, the most common method used to clean the well was manual. This was done with the help of bindull or kollso. Ropes and pulleys were typically used for this purpose. This would happen during the summer month when the water level was at its lowest, making it easier to access the well walls and bottom. The cleaners would come by 4 in the morning and the cleaning would end by 12 noon. In Goa, the pre-monsoon months are the busiest for well cleaners and diggers. Their maintenance work includes desilting, coating the well with lime, and cleaning with potassium permanganate. These practices ensure both clean water and the longevity of the well.
In Goa, the pre-monsoon months are the busiest for well cleaners and diggers. Their maintenance work includes desilting, coating the well with lime, and cleaning with potassium permanganate. These practices ensure both clean water and the longevity of the well.
Change is a constant, and as time has gone by, the spaces around wells in Goa have evolved too.
CULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WELLS
Wells were once vital community gathering spots, central to village life in Goa. They served not only as places for drawing water but also as hubs for social interactions. Villagers would come to draw water, socialise, share news, and conduct trade. Women would gather near the well, composing and singing local tunes that reflected the nostalgia, beauty, and importance of wells in their daily lives. These melodies and lyrics – for example: “Sogli rat baim-kodde, kinni kinni zata kana kode” – reveal the deep connection Goans have with their land and the significant role wells played in their routines.
Culturally, wells are of tremendous influence in Goa. And they take center stage on June 24 every year - for the Sao João Festival. It is a day of fun and frolic. Villagers with kopel (wreath of flowers) on their head are seen jumping into ponds and wells that are filled to the brim as the village reverberates with the chants of Viva São João [15].
It is a day to celebrate Saint John for whom the Goan Catholic community have very high regard. Celebrated with special fervour in Cortalim, Siolim, and Terekhol. As a long standing tradition, the newest son-in-law of the village is the guest of honour and it is customary for him to jump into the well followed by fellow revellers. It is seasonal fruits, sweets and feni time.
But why do people jump into a well?
The church points to the gospel narration16 that St. John leapt in the womb of his mother Elizabeth when her cousin Mary, who was also expecting, went to visit her. The São João Festival commemorates that leap of joy. It shows that even though they are not yet born, John recognises that Jesus is God’s son. Apart from being a celebration of that jump of ecstasy, the ritual of jumping into wells is also a replaying of how St. John the Baptist used to baptize believers – by dipping them in rivers.
A verse in the Rigveda [17] states that the 'rays of the sun are the cause of the rain and that the sun extracts water from all parts of the world and the earth is continuously engaged in extraction and discharge of water', referring to the hydrologic cycle.
A well in Benaulim in the olden times was a place of courtship courtesy a bhatkar (landlord) who organised dance parties in the yard of his house [18]. Its popularity meant the youngsters swelled in number, and it became a place where love bloomed. The well in the backyard was christened - Moga Baim (Well of Love). To this day, locals have tales to tell of those nights.
It is not just sepia-tinted nostalgia and romanticism that encourages the preservation and proliferation of wells. They form a network for water security and are a bellwether of local ecological patterns. It is a resource that needs care and protection, not neglect and exploitation, so that they remain a cornerstone of Goan life.
References and Bibiliography
[1] Clarice Vaz, Romalina, 2022, Saligao, Page 83 , Chapter 8 Of Wells and Wood-Smoked Bathwater
2 Supriya Vohra, Mongabay, India, 2022, Who is extracting Goa’s groundwater? https://india.mongabay.com/2022/10/who-is-extracting-goas-groundwater/ (Accessed 24 June 2024)
3 Goa State Water Policy-2021, Panjim, Government Printing Press, September 2021, https://www.ielrc.org/content/e1507.pdfhttps://goawrd.gov.in/sites/default/files/State%20water%20policy%202021.pdf | (Accessed 24 June 2024)
4 The Navhind Times, 2023, Govt begins work to geotag all wells in Goa https://www.navhindtimes.in/2023/03/23/goanews/govt-begins-work-to-geotag-all-wells-in-goa/(Accessed 24 June 2024)
5 A. Mascarenhas and Glenn Kalavampara (eds.) Natural Resources of Goa, 2009, Bangalore, Lotus Printers, Page 125-126, Chapter 7 - Hydrogeology and Water Availability Status in Goa - AG Chachadi
6 Central Ground Water Board, Dynamic Ground Resources of Goa, Bangalore, 2022, Page 54, https://www.cgwb.gov.in/old_website/GW-Assessment/GWR-2022-Reports%20State/Goa.pdf,
(Accessed 24 June 2024)
7 SM Metri and Khushvir Singh, Mausam (61), IMD Panjim 2010, Study of rainfall features over Goa state during southwest monsoon season, https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/index.php/MAUSAM/article/download/796/680/2837, (Accessed 24 June 2024)
8 Roy Abraham K, Dash SK and Mohanty UC, Mausam (Vol. 47), IMD New Delhi, 1996 Page 237, Simulation of monsoon circulation and cyclone with different types of orography, https://mausamjournal.imd.gov.in/index.php/MAUSAM/article/view/3736/3509Page 237, (Accessed 24 June 2024)
9 Census of India 2011- Goa, Directorate of Census Operations, Panjim, 2014, Page 12, https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/369/download/1124/DH_2011_3001_PART_B_DCHB_NORTH_GOA.pdf, (Accessed 24 June 2024)
10 C. Alvares (ed.) Fish, Curry and Rice, Ecoforum, 1993, Pune, Mudra, Page 124-125, Chapter 6 - Water by Mario and Muriel Mascarenhas
11 Supriya Vohra, Mongabay, India, 2022, https://india.mongabay.com/2022/10/government-claims-every-household-in-goa-has-piped-water-records-residents-disagree, (Accessed 24 June 2024)
12 Central Ground Water Board, Dynamic Ground Water Year Book of Goa 2022-23, Bangalore, Page 66, https://www.cgwb.gov.in/cgwbpnm/publication-detail/1183, (Accessed 24 June 2024)
13 Goa Ground Water Policy-2015, Panjim, Government Printing Press, April 2015, https://www.ielrc.org/content/e1507.pdf (Accessed 24 June 2024)
14 Ministry of Water, New Delhi , PIB, Release ID: 1663200, 2020, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1663200 (Accessed 24 June 2024)
15 Celina de Vieira Velho e Almeida, Feasts and Fests of Goa, 2023, Saoir Faire, Panjim, Page 61-68, Chapter 11 São João, Then and Now: A Portuguese Folk Festival
16 The Holy Bible, Luke 1:39-45
17 Pradeep Majumdar and Sharad Jain, European Geosciences Union General Assembly 2018, Hydrology in Ancient India, https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EGUGA..20.8690M/abstract (Accessed 24 June 2024)
18 Meliston Fernandes, ‘Unveiling the legacy of traditional Goan wells’, O Heraldo, 26 May 2024, Cafe, Page 9, https://epaper.heraldgoa.in/oHeraldo?eid=1&edate=26/05/2024&pgid=46839&device=desktop&view=2 (Accessed 24 June 2024)